The Indian culinary culture is a product of historical and cultural developments spanning over thousands of years. Indian cuisine can be best described as a “palimpsest,” which denotes something which contains multiple layers or aspects beneath the surface, with each layer exerting an unalterable impact upon the whole. Cultural exchanges through trade, travel, conquests, and invasions have all contributed to its culinary heritage.

Prehistoric antecedents: The Beginnings of Agriculture

Some of the earliest evidence for the beginning of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent comes from its north-western part. Archaeological evidence found in northern Rajasthan suggests that forests were cleared and crops were grown in this region as early as 8000 BCE. One of the most important prehistoric sites for the development of agriculture is Mehrgarh in Balochistan. Wheat and barley were grown in this region as early as 6500 BCE. By around the 3rd millennium BCE, settlements also emerged in the river valleys of the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri in the southern part of the subcontinent. The evidence of large open bowls and pots suggests that porridge and gruel-like foods were eaten during this period. It might also suggest the practice of community dining.

Indus Valley: Cities and Surplus

The Indus Valley Civilisation (3000-2000 BCE) or Harappan Civilisation, emerged along the fertile river valleys of the Punjab and Sindh. It is one of the earliest known urban civilisations of the world. Scholars suggest that the urban cities of this civilisation were supported by surplus food production in the outlying areas—the number and variety of crops cultivated greatly diversified during this period. Archaeological evidence suggests that wheat, barley, lentils, peas, and sesame were among the principal crops grown.

Although bread was the staple, rice was also eaten. Fish symbols were widely found on the seals, suggesting they formed part of the diet. Archaeologists have discovered an agricultural field in Kalibangan (Rajasthan), a major planned city of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The field contains scrapes in a crisscross pattern, identified as furrows caused by ploughing. It is interesting to note that, even today, this crisscross ploughing method is still used by farmers in some areas around the excavation site.

In Kalibangan, several thousand charred barley grains have also been identified, suggesting it may have been a staple of the region at that time. Small ovens plastered in mud, closely resembling modern tandoors, have also been discovered at the site. As the principal cities of the Indus Valley engaged in brisk trade with Mesopotamia, culinary influences from the latter, especially in bread and meat preparation, might have reached the Harappan cities.

Vedic Period: The Primacy of Gau and Yajnas

We sing your praises, O Food. From you we obtain as butter from a cow, our sacrificial offerings. O you, convivial feasts of god and men.

-Hymn 187, Rig Veda           

During the Vedic period, important societal developments influenced the development of specific culinary habits. It was during this period that stratification based on caste or birth was introduced in society, bringing with it the notions of purity and pollution associated with food. The religion of the Vedas centred on the performance of yajna, or sacrifice. The sacrifices involved offering cooked food to the gods by a householder on the domestic hearth, elaborate public sacrifices and the drinking of soma (an intoxicating liquid). The cow was central to the society, economy and polity of the Vedic age. This naturally entailed the wide prevalence of dairy products in the culinary repertoire of this period. A preparation of milk with grains and parched barley was called odana. Barley was the principal grain of the period. Oilseeds such as sesame and mustard were also used. Among fruits and vegetables, the Vedic literature mentions bilva (bael), amalaka (myrobalan fruit), and mangoes.

Intellectual Moorings: Food as a Cosmic Principle

The period between the 6th and the 3rd century BCE in India is known as the second urbanisation, during which several urban centres grew in the Gangetic valley. This period also witnessed an intellectual ferment which gave rise to some of the major religious and philosophical schools of the Indian subcontinent, such as Jainism and Buddhism. This phase was marked by philosophical reflections on the nature of the self and the universe, which, in turn, had implications for culinary trends in the region. Food was considered the life-giving source of living beings and hence was equated with the being itself. In the complex cycle of life in the universe, a being becomes the food of another, which again becomes the food of the third, and the cycle continues. A popular legend in Buddhism recounts the tale of a devout lady, Sujata, who offered a bowl of boiled rice and milk to an emaciated Buddha during his period of severe penance. It is believed that Buddha was able to obtain enlightenment only after being revived by this food.

This incident is said to have encouraged him to abandon the principle of extreme penance in favour of the Middle Path. Both Buddhism and Jainism stressed the ideal of ahimsa or non-injury to living beings. Scholars argue that this encouraged vegetarianism among the common people. Such ideals also influenced Hinduism. The timeless epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, were composed between the latter half of the 2nd millennium and the first half of the 1st millennium BCE. Bhima, one of the Pandavas and a principal character of the Mahabharata, is known to have had a voracious appetite and exceptional physical strength.

Classical Age: The Growth of Trade, State and Orthodoxy

An important feature of the period between the 1st and the 5th century CE is India’s brisk trade with other South-Asian countries. This period also saw the rise of strong empires, such as the Guptas, which provided a further fillip to trade. Traces of cultural exchange via trade can still be found in Indian cuisine. Spices formed a major commodity of commerce. The Gupta Empire had major trade relations with the Roman Empire. After the latter broke up, trade relations with the Byzantine Empire continued. Some of the major commodities of this trade were spices such as long pepper, white pepper and cardamom. Pepper was also exported to Iran in exchange for horses of superior breed. Another important feature of this period was the development of a class of Sanskrit texts known as the Dharmasastras, which set out the code of conduct and moral principles (dharma) of brahmanical religion.

These texts laid down rules governing cooking and food consumption, with broader implications for notions of ritual purity and pollution within Brahmanism. It is difficult to determine the extent of legal authority that these texts enjoyed. Given the enduring heterogeneous nature of Indian society, the dietary regulations and injunctions mentioned in the texts were perhaps not followed to the letter. However, they were perhaps woven into the fabric of day-to-day life and enjoyed moral and spiritual importance in society.

Puranic Hinduism and the Concept of Food as Naivedya and Prasada

Invoking daily god Visnu by chanting the aforesaid mantra, one should offer, with concentrated mind, articles of worship such as water for washing his hands and feet, and rinse his mouth and water for taking bath, silken garments, the sacred thread, ornaments, sandal-paste, flowers, incense, light, food and other articles.

-Bhagavata Purana, VI.19.8           

Starting around the 5th century CE, an important class of religious texts known as the Puranas was composed. The growth of the concept of personal gods in Hinduism marks this period. These deities could be appeased by offering puja (worship), which included offering specific food items as bhoga or naivedya. Each deity in popular Hinduism has its own culinary preferences. For example, Visnu is generally offered ghee and milk-based foods. Ganesha is known for his love of sweets, especially the modaka variety. After food is offered to the deity, the leftover prasada is distributed among devotees and is believed to be blessed by the deity. Another important development during this period was the growth of Tantricism. In sharp contrast to mainstream Brahmanical religion, Tantricism considered mamsa (meat) and madya (wine) to be worthy offerings to god, and encouraged their use among devotees. Tantricism, as an ideal, sought to unleash the power of the forbidden substances as a way to reach the divine.

Impact of Islamic culture: Food Fit for Royalty

Whosoever when hungry and with food before him, hears the supplication of a poor man and bestows it all upon him, will be rich and liberal.

- Ain-i-Akbari           

Influences from the Middle East have, over time, made Indian cuisine rich in flavours and variety. Some of the earliest influences came from Syrian Christians from the Arab world, which deeply shaped Kerala’s cuisine. It is fascinating that samosa, a popular snack in northern India, may have originated in the Arab world. The Arab cookbooks of the 10th and 11th century CE mention meat-filled patties called sambusas. “The arrival of traders, spiritual leaders and conquerors from the Middle East, starting from the 7th century CE on the Indian soil, introduced new elements to the cultural fabric of this country. It also brought about lasting influences in the gastronomical culture of the subcontinent.” Such culinary influences achieved the most refined and sophisticated form under the Mughals.  

Some of the important contributions of the Middle East to Indian cuisine include the introduction of rich gravies with nuts, saffron, and aromatic herbs, as well as various kinds of bread. The Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazal mentions dishes such as yakhni (a meat stock), musamman, and stuffed roasted chicken, as well as cooking techniques such as dampukht (a slow-cooking technique) and biryani (frying or roasting). Breads such as sheermal, roomali and tandoori roti are also a gift of the Mughals to the Indian cuisine. It is believed that kulfi, a popular contemporary Indian dessert, also originated in Mughal India. The Nimatnama-i-Nasiruddin-Shahi was a medieval cookbook commissioned by Ghiyath Shah (1469-1500 CE), the ruler of Malwa. This Persian text, a compilation of medieval recipes, is enhanced with rich illustrations.

The Europeans in India and Culinary Arrivals from the New World

...Julienne soup, full of bullety bottled peas, pseudo-cottage bread, fish full of branching bones, pretending to be plaice, more bottled peas with the cutlets, trifles, sardines on toast: the menu of Anglo-India.

- A Passage to India           

The Europeans who began arriving in the Indian subcontinent in the 16th century introduced many new foods. The Portuguese introduced potatoes, chillies, papayas, pineapples, peanuts, guavas, and tobacco to the Indian culinary basket. The potatoes in India came to be known as alu, a generic Sanskrit term for tuber. Portuguese influence enriched the cuisine of Goa, which was their capital. Similarly, the cuisine of Pondicherry reflects the legacy of French colonial influence.

The British, who ruled India for 200 years, introduced tea cultivation in India through large plantations. Many vegetables that were initially grown in India by the British for their own use were harmoniously incorporated into Indian cuisine, such as cauliflower, cabbage, spinach, and carrots.

Modern Trends: The Vibrant World of Cafes, Dhabas and Online Apps

Indian cuisine continues to evolve. The restaurant culture in India is a product of modern times. Traditionally, caste norms associated with commensality prevented Indians of different social groups from dining together. However, taverns and inns that served a variety of food items existed since ancient times. A category of restaurants called dhabas has become quite popular in the present times. Originally patronised by lorry drivers, these eateries have become popular among today’s urban youth. The intermingling of the culinary cultures of India and China has given rise to a new genre of Chinese food, popular in India, called Indo-Chinese. Another important development is that street food in India has moved beyond the streets and been taken over by large food chains. With the recent introduction of mobile food applications, access to a variety of cuisines from the comfort of one’s home has become possible.